Military Leader and President: Dwight Eisenhower (1953-1961)

Dwight Eisenhower was a unique man- in all his lifetime as a boy he wanted to be a soldier and a war hero, therefore, he graduated from the U.S Military Academy at West Point. He moved on to be top rank soldier during World War II. During this time, he helped develop the D-Day invasion that would end Hitler's regime. Eisenhower went on to become the president of Columbia University from 1948 to 1950. Afterwards, NATO wanted Eisenhower to become their supreme commander. In 1952, he was asked to run as a Republican candidate for presidency. 

During his time as presidency, the Brown v. Board of Education was going on, which was the issue on civil rights issues and argued the desegregation of schools. Even after changes were to be instituted and enforced, Governor Faubus wanted to keep African Americans out of schools, but Eisenhower ordered the 101st Airborne Division to ensure that African Americans were safe when getting to school and in class. The Doctrine of Massive Retaliation expanded the defense budget and stated that money would be invested into bombers to carry nuclear warheads and there would be massive bombing against any communist country that stepped out of line. During the Arms Race, the Soviet Union made more and more weapons and portions of money in each country were going towards defense spending. 

In 1955, the Eisenhower Doctrine was a promise to support any country financially against communism with the use of military if it were necessary. In 1956, Hungarians rose against communist government and they asked the United States for aid but they refused and in this Massive Retaliation would not work because high altitude bombers could not help revolutionaries take over their own country. Eisenhower got the U.S involved in Vietnam in 1954. Vietnam did not want to be ruled by France so they defeated them at the Battle of Dienbienphu. During Eisenhower's presidency the Space Race began when the Sputnik I became the first Russian space satellite to go around the world and there was a fear that Russia would place nuclear weapons in space. 

Lastly, in Eisenhower's Farewell Address of 1960, he warns that America's economy would rely heavily on nuclear weapons and continue to kill. 

Dorothea Lange: Sleeping Gypsy 1938

It is the year 1938 of the month of June and Dorothea Lange describes her photograph as, "She awaits the international streetcar at a corner in El Paso, Texas, to return across the bridge to Mexico." This woman is homeless and she does not have much with her. She is struggling to find a job and a home since she is elderly and has no family with her. Instead of finding a better life and a job in the United States, unfortunately this woman encountered the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl and it left her with no hope.

In her image, Dorothea Lange depicts a cry of help to the government that it is their responsibility to care for the sick and the needy and house those that do not have jobs. Many people's homes were destroyed by the dust storms and their health was affected as well. For this"Gypsy Woman" the only solution for her is to return back to Mexico in order to sustain under better condition than the United States is in facing the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl.

World War I: The Alliance System Domino Effect

               The alliance system was one of the crucial components that led to the first major world war and many describe it as a "domino effect." It all began when Austria Hungary became upset that the death of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand was caused by a secret society in Siberia called Black Hand. Austria Hungary wanted to lead an official attack on Siberia and wanted to crush its authority. Instead of directly attacking Siberia, Austria Hungary offered an ultimatum and demanded that the assassins be brought to justice.

               At the time, Siberia was in alliance with Russia and Austria Hungary was in alliance with Germany and they assured aid in the case that Russia declared war. Siberia was indifferent about the ultimatum and unsatisfied so they declared war on July 28th, 1914. Russia began its mobilization of troops and Germany declared war on Russia on August 1st. Slowly but surely, that is how the domino effect took place.

               France was bound to a treaty to Russia and fought against Germany invaded Belgium on August 3rd. Britain loosely worded treaty and moral obligation to France, war on Germany on August 4th and was committed to defending Belgium. With Britain's entry into the war, military and financial assistance included Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand and South Africa.

               The U.S promised to remain neutral but after the German submarine warfare, Woodrow Wilson broke the the U.S neutralizing law and entered the war on April 6, 1917. Japan honored the military agreement with Britain, therefore declared war on Germany and Austria Hungary declared war on Japan on August 23rd. Italy was part of the triple alliance with Germany and Austria and remained to stay committed to defend both countries only in "defense war".

The Progressive Era Character Analysis

Theodore Roosevelt

a. Theodore was a man born and raised in New York City and he was able to witness Abraham Lincoln's funeral when he was just a boy. Roosevelt went on to graduate fromHarvard University and as he grew older he witnessed the police department be cruel and corrupt and wanted to form a just and fair police force. Roosevelt was involved with the Spanish American War and strongly believed in the idea of Manifest Destiny and exercised the ideas of imperialism in the Philippines.

b.  Roosevelt was nominated for Nice President of the United States because people believed that it was better for Roosevelt to do little change and after the death of President William McKinley, Roosevelt took his place. Under his presidency Roosevelt established the first national park. He created a program for the poor and needy called the Square Deal and also established the Food and Drug Association (FDA). Roosevelt established the Progressive Party dedicated to follow the progressive ideals.

c. Another thing that President Roosevelt created was the Great White Fleet made up of American navy vessels that would travel around the world and demonstrate American power. He was all in favor of the Big Stick Policy which meant that there was no reason to be afraid to use the military and violence to control the countries that needed to be controlled. Roosevelt was also in favor of the labor unions and wanted to nationalize companies. He added the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine and believed it was the United States' responsibility to intervene in Central and South American countries.

Woodrow Wilson

a. Without realizing it, Woodrow Wilson would end up being the head of the first world war. He graduated from Princeton University and became a college professor. He created the theory of Moral Internationalism that stated that America must be involved with the rest of the world. Wilson believed that social problems should have American involvement.

b. Wilson defied his campaign speech and slogan for presidential election when people believed that he would keep America out of war and the first thing he did was to want to be involved with World War I.  Wilson created the 14 points and its main ideas were peace without victory, freedom of the seas and the formation of the League of Nations.

c.  Wilson fought in order for the Treaty of Versailles to pass and through it the idea of moral internationalism would be established in the nation. Wilson made sure the United states would be the founding member of the league of nations. Wilson believed that the responsibility of the League of Nations would be to end war, poverty and hunger and that the world would be united with democracy.

Ida Tarbel

a.  Ida comes from a wildcat oil country in a rural area in Pennsylvannia. Oil wells were owned and operated by individual people and families. Rockefeller wanted to steal family oil well through the Standard Oil company and even though she graduated with a degree of science, Ida found her passion in writing. Rockefeller identified her as a muckraker. She became interested in Madame Roland and France as well as researching about Lincoln.

b. Through Ida Tarbel, she released a book titled the History of the Standard Oil Company that revealed all the truths and defiance of the Standard Oil Company as well as creating an expose. Through her writing an investigation was held on J.D Rockefeller and the ideal monopoly went down and the company was broken down into six little companies.

c. Ida felt the importance of journalism in order to bring change and she was able to make Rockefeller consider to give to the poor and to contribute to other philanthropic causes. Ida Wells did not support the Women's Rights Movement.


Robert La Follete

a.  La Follete came from a rural Wisconsin and a family of farmers and he also attended the University of Wisconsin. He has always been in favor of the poor. La Follete became a District Attorney  and was able to move up to the House of Representatives. He was famously known for his speeched and therefore people were able to trust him even though he was considered young and inexperienced.

b. La Follete was an advocate of the public being involved in people being part in passing laws and advocated for the legislation of referendum which was the ability to recall or end an elected official's time in office before the next election. The Wisconsin Idea was to give the power of the government back to the people to make America. He was unsuccessful in stopping the U.S declaration of war. La Follete was upset for the U.S violating the First Amendment during the war.

c. When everyone of the members of congress were in favor of going to war during the first world war,  La Follete gave many anti war speeches and argued against the idea of America going to war with the rest of the world. He was believed to be a strong anarchist and ran for president of the Progressive Party

Eugene V. Debs

a. He was born into an intellectual family but they were poor. He also comes from a German background and was taught to have respect for his community and he enjoyed school. He valued the idea of engaging in intellectual discussions and soon enough took on a risky job at the railroads.

b. Debs was able to find meaning behind the union work and believe that socialism and meeting new people paid off at the end in his career. He became a union activist and demanded for justice at the companies for railroad company workers. The ARU assisted the Great Railway Strike against the Pullman company. Dubbs strongly believed in the idea of Socialism.

c. He began the American Railway Union and it became the strongest industrial union in the railway industry. Debs established a life long friendship with Susan B. Anthony and he supported woman's suffrage. Debbs and his brother Theodore established a publishing company because he believed that many important books from great authors were not being published. He focused on the subject of unionism, struggles of the poor, socialism, anarchism, and communism.

John D. Rockefeller

a. Rockefeller was born on a small farm in upstate New York and could most likely be described as being in the middle class. He became devoted to religion. He earned a good salary as a book seller.

b. He established the idea of Monopoly and took control over all oil companies.He established the idea of predatory pricing. If any company tried to move in on the business the prices of Rockefellers priducts would drop and there would be no other company to compete with so that company would go out of business.

C. Rockefeller fought to keep unions out of his companies. He also believed that companies would know what was best for them. Philantropy was an important part of his life as well as religion. At his old retired age, Rockefeller gave money to universities, research institutes and African American Colleges.

African Americans after Reconstruction

       


         The end of the Civil War marked the ending of two nations to join into one as well as the beginning of the emancipation for African Americans. The Reconstruction, was a time of "liberation" but instead African Americans found themselves without suffrage, working for former slave masters and having to follow black codes. Even after the Reconstruction ended in 1877, there was a large population of poor black farmers in the South. Not only that, but a new wave of violence broke out from the newly formed society of the Klu Klux Klan made up of former Confederate soldiers that would cause massive terror and lynching  especially against black young men. African Americans that were put on trial, even if proven non guilty, would be persecuted by the KKK. It wasn't until 1882 that the KKK act was considered unconstitutional.

The Polish/Russian Immigrants

1.a.) In Russia, during the 19th century, there was an immense increase in the population and diversity as the result of conquered nations. The reasons for the immigration of the people living in Russia was because the individuals that were conquered clung to their own identity and did not want to accept the idea of them being Russians. Other reasons were that there was an overpopulation, widespread famines and political unrest. During the 1880s Russians started to immigrate to the U.S due to land shortages, poverty and starvation.

b.) During the U.S Revolutionary War, Polish immigrants started coming in to the country during the Battle of Independence from Britain. During the 19th century, there was a division of 3 imperial powers that drove the nation appart. The reasoning for Pole immigration was that there were political barriers. The Polish were free to perform their own religious practices but it was difficult to maintain an identity in a hostile environment. During the 20th century, imperial repression, land shortages and chronic unemployment


2.a.) Before a flow of immigrants started to settle in the United States, Russian explorers had already started to explore Alaska in the 18th Century. However, when the immigrations started many Russians ended up in Ellis Island while others, because of the Homestead Act, many moved to California and Oregon in 1910.

b.) Polish immigrants' first permanent settlement in 1854 was on the Texas plains and it was called the Panna Maria. The Poles were people that respected the property of others and viewed owning property with highly importance, therefore, immigrants settled in the Great Lakes Region, Wisconsin, Minnesota and Michigan.


3. a.)Even after the end of World War II, more refugees started leaving Europe to the United States, but there was a rise in tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States. The development of the Homestead Act allowed for Russians to find work and own property in California.

b.) The Second World War and the Cold War caused much destruction in Poland in which people lost their homes, therefore, Polish Americans opened their homes to anyone who was able to escape.

4. a.) In 1917, as the imperial government was overturned by socialist revolutionaries called Bolsheviks led to a civil war and it caused 2 million Russians to flee and 30,000 made it to the United States. Some of the class of immigrants that fled were artists, professionals, and business men also known as White Russians. As much as they were welcomed by the U.S government, they were not welcomed the the Russian American community that was already living in the United States.



5. a.) During the year 1919 and 1920, Russian immigrants were deported without a formal trial because they were being singled out as danger. After the Russian Revolution, the U.S began to gear communist revolution in the country and it was known as the Red Scare. And due to fear of persecution,  many Russians became Protestant, changed their names and gave up their customs.

6 a.) When Russian immigration increased during the late 19th century, the only available jobs were in the growing industries that did not pay much such as mines, mills and sweatshops. Russians constantly were in the search of property and the hopes to owning their own land. Many once arriving to the United States were already in need of money because one of the reasons for immigration to America was the rise in poverty in Russia.

b.) Poles were drawn to factories, steel mills, slaughter houses and foundries as being the only available jobs for them.

7a.) Due to the extreme diversity in Russia by the conquered nations, every culture hung on to their own identity which led to the immigration of Russians and it was difficult for them to take on the identity as Russians. Russians felt more secure forming small communities upon their arrival to the United States. The Duckhobors and Molokans from Russia were sects that within their small communities still kept their traditional music and practices.

b.) Even though the Poles were free to be Roman Catholics in a nation conquered by an imperial power, they still felt that they remained in a hostile identity. Even as they remained in America, the Polish guarded their language, faith and heritage. They built communities to specifically preserve their national heritage. Inclusive, the Poles started releasing newspapers in their language, forming social clubs, radio and T.V stations and built more than 900 Parochial schools. The Poles also made sure to preserve music, dance, literature and folklore.



Primary Sources:

Immigration Map:  http://www.loc.gov/resource/g3201e.ct000242/
1917 Immigration Act: http://library.uwb.edu/guides/usimmigration/1917_immigration_act.html

Racism in a Country of Free Men: Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

               Many Chinese immigrants began to arrive in California in 1848 to mine for gold. As the years, proceed it became more and more difficult for Chinese to maintain a satisfying work experience. In 1852, the court ruled that Chinese could not give testimony in court and in 1870, California passed a law against the importation of Chinese and Japanese women for prostitution. The Panic of 1873 took an especially heavy toll on the status of Chinese workers when there was a major downfall in the American economy and was one of the major events that led to the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.

                Growing tensions between Americans and Chinese immigrants soon enough turned into major conflicts between the Chinese and other immigrant groups such as the Germans and the Irish. And surely, during the spring of 1882, The Chinese Exclusion Act was passed by Congress and signed by President Chester A. Arthur. The act provided an absolute 10 year moratorium on Chinese Labor immigration. The Federal law proscribed entry of an ethnic working group on the premise that it endangered the good order of certain localities. Non laborers who sought entry had to obtain certification from Chinese government that they had permission to migrate. State and federal courts also negated the rights to grant citizenship to Chinese residents. When the exclusion act expired, American continued to oppress Chinese workers by instilment of The Geary Act, added restrictions by requiring  each Chinese resident to register and obtain a certificate of residence.

               The motives for Americans to have passed the Chinese Exclusion Act were that Americans and other immigrant groups like the Irish and German were scared that the Chinese were taking away the jobs that belonged to them and they posed a threat to a "prosperous community". Anger rose as businesses began to be taken over by Chinese men and women and monopolized and flourished businesses which made them a competition and a threat.